Study Notes for Chapter 4

Below, I try not to repeat the information already given to you on pp. 6 & 7 in the Anthropak.

Australopithecines:

· Time periods & locations?

· What species preceded australopithecines? Transitions leading to them?

· Their environment? Climate Change and its evolutionary pressure?

· What does the Bi-pedalism do for the species?

· Focus on Afarensis “Lucy” & Africanus

· Other Varieties of Australopithecines?

· Anatomy & teeth? Different from other primates?

· Tools? … if so, how did they use them?

· What were they eating?

They were preceded by more “ape-like” Ardipithecus (5-7 mya), which does appear to be bipedal; before that by primates that are similar to Chimps/Bonobos/Orangs we see today. Australopithecines are sort of half gorilla/chimp and half Homo (human), like “Lucy”; mostly ape-like in skull and arm length, but human in the bipedalism, and the physical changes that it causes. Bipedalism is the key: allows to look out over the landscape for food or predators, walk long distances w/ little energy, more use of the hands (tools, carry, throw things). Though now making use of more open woodlands or savannah (cooling geologic period that shrinks the topical forests), they still retreat to the trees or forest at night, or for other food sources and protection. Later period of this group springs more robust divisions (Robustus, Boisei, Paranthropus). No formal or sophisticated hunting/gathering at this time, or the manufacturing of stone tools.

Homo Hablis:

· Time period & geography?

· Anatomy & teeth & brain size changes?

· Comparing earliest Homo- behavior to chimps?

· Tools, and their use?

· Their environment?

· Diet?

· Brain use and finger dexterity?

· Any semblance of “culture” yet? Language?

We think that division of labor might have just begun to develop at this point – food sharing between males and females – more likely between mothers/sons or brothers/sisters or fathers/daughters, or to attract a female or male to have intercourse. Advanced bipedalism has closed off the birth canal forcing infants to come our weak and dependent – so childcare is another practical reason for pair-bonding or group coordination. Also this species is increasing the dexterity of their fingers with tool manufacturing and use. More time in the savannahs/open grasslands, little to no time in tropical areas. Still scavenging for meat. No evidence for language.

Homo Erectus:

· Time period & new geography they covered?

· Changes in anatomy, teeth, and brain size?

· What species did they overlap with?

· New tools?

· Hunting and Gathering, is it formalized yet?

· Any signs of “culture” yet?

· Fire and its uses and advantages, includes its affects on food?

· Shelters, formal campsites, and clothing?

· Language yet?

Early Homo Erectus: big points: taller, stronger, definite increase in brain size; less sexual dimorphism; moving out of scavenging to formal hunting/gathering; first diversified tool kit for different needs; moving into southern Europe and Asia. Later Homo Erectus (post 700,000 ya) formal hunting/gathering; formal camp sites; formation of earliest language development (multi-phonemes; simple syntax); also at this time evidence appears for the use of Fire – for cooking, warmth, protection, night activities, detoxifies some foods, breaks down the minerals and vitamins that can now be absorbed, softens food. One also sees more cooperative hunting and the expansion into semi-cold areas of Eurasia (clothing necessary below 50 degrees Fahrenheit).

Archaic Homo Sapiens :

· Time period & new geography they covered?

· Changes in Anatomy & brain size?

· Lumpers vs. Splitters?

· Tool changes? What were they hunting?

· Neanderthal’s anatomy & brain size?

· Neanderthal’s signs of culture/language?

About 300,000-250,000 y.a. a different batch of Homo Erectus come out of Africa and spread through most, if not all, of the “homo” inhabited places of southern and central Eurasia. They were taller and leaner and brainer than most late Homo Erectus, and the tools over time were smaller, more finely made (flaking), and more diversified. Some of the early Archaic Homo Sapiens/Late Homo Erectus found their way into northern Europe and adapted differently to the harsher, colder mountains and hills of Europe where they hunted large game animals. These became the Neanderthals who were more muscular with larger heads than other Archaic Homo Sapiens. They became known as Neanderthals (aka Homo Neanderthalis - named after Neander Valley of Germany). Neanderthals did eventually spread into the mountains of the Middle East at end of their period, possible mixing/interbreeding with Archaic Homo Sapiens in those areas. Neanderthals were more primitive than other Archaic Homo Sapiens in intelligence, possibly language, and tool use, but did show some culture in burial practices, rituals (bear skulls), and symbolic art (notches on bones). If you believe everyone in this time period has a common ancestry originating in Africa, including Neanderthals, you’re more likely a “lumper” paleo-anthropologist (see enough commonality in the variety of fossils to say they all belong to the one family & species); or you might be a “splitter” who feels that late Homo Erectus split off and developed into many different variations of Homo Sapiens (remarking on the “racial” variations we still see today), and also excluding Neanderthal as any direct ancestor.

Modern Homo Sapiens :

· Time period & new geography of expansion?

· Changes in Anatomy & brain shape/size?

· Climate change and new things to hunt?

· New Tools or tool changes?

· Developments in culture?

Once again we see the anatomy of our ancestors getting taller, leaner with bigger brains as we move toward the present. As we move into the beginning of this period (30,000-40,000 ya) we see 2 notable cranial shifts as well – a flatter taller forehead (less occipital bun – rear skull protrusion), and a more prominent chin. So their anatomy is generally the same as the average human today, though maybe slightly shorter on average. The climate is also moving into a series of warming and cooling periods, mostly warming, for which most Neanderthals and their large game animals cannot survive. This warming period also eventually creates the rising of the global tides (from melting of polar icecaps) creating a lot more shallow coastlines, rivers, and lakes. So fishing becomes more of an option. Tools changes radically in this period to accommodate all the changes in animals to hunt or fish (now - bows & arrows, atlatls, boomerangs, traps, snares, nets, hooks, use of bone & antler as tools, smaller arrow points w/ intricate flaking & napping, etc.). Also, strong evidence of religion and ritual appear in this period (cave paintings, petro glyphs, geo-glyphs, pendants, bone and antler carvings, etc.).