1791: Constitutions go into effect: Constitution of 1791; Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Legislative Assembly meets for the first time.

1792-1794: The Radical Revolution

War declared by the Legislative Assembly against Austria and Prussia; Brunswick Manifesto; the First French Republic proclaimed, September, 1792; September marks Year I of the new calendar. 1793: Louis XVI executed; Committee of Public Safety created; Reign of Terror begins. Levee en masse creates a national army; creation of the Cult of Reason. Maximillien Robespierre

July, 1794-1799: The Reaction

Fall of Robespierre and his associates. 1795: Constitution of the Year III (1795) goes into effect establishing the Directory (lasts until 1799). 1799: Coup Brumaire: Consulate established

1799-1815: The Napoleonic Phase

Consulate in effect until 1804 when the Empire created Concordat with the Pope; codification of law (Code Napoleon) begins in 1804; Empire proclaimed with hereditary succession; Treaty of Tilsit; creation of the "Grand Empire." 1808, Peninsular War begins; 1812: invasion of Russia; 1814: Allies enter Paris; Napoleon abdicates, exiled to Elba. 1815: the Hundred Days; Waterloo; Napoleon exiled to St. Helena 

• Conservatism: absolute monarchy; legal classes; government involvement in the economy; authority and order; established church; needs of society remain static

Conservatism in practice: France (1815-1830); Austria (1815-1848); Prussia        (1815-1848)

• Liberalism: legal equality; civil liberties; limited monarchy with a constitution and a legislative body; laissez fairism; secularism; religious toleration; gradual change; non-democratic; non-republican

Liberalism in practice: France (1830-1848); Italy (1848ff); England

• Republicanism: anti-monarchical; universal suffrage; government reform of the economy and economic inequalities

 Republicanism in practice: France (1849-1852 and after 1871); most           European countries after World War I (Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Rumania, Bulgaria, Germany, Spain). Some African and Asian countries after World War II became true republics and others became "paper" republics.

• Socialism: fought against exploitation of the workers; classless society; economic determinism; government ownership of the means of production; dictatorship of the proletariate (through a "republican" form of government).

Socialism in practice: USSR, 1917-1992; China, 1948-present; North Viet Nam; Cuba, 1959-present; other small African and Asian countries adopted governments with some Marxist characteristics

3. The 19^th Century Revolutions

1820s: Spain, Naples, Sicily, Greece (gained independence from the Turks), Russia. Only the revolution in Greece brought significant change

1830s: Belgium (independence gained); Poland; Italian states; Spain; Portugal.

1848: France (second French Republic proclaimed; Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, President; lasts til 1871); Prussia (though the monarchy maintained, the Prussian ruler "gave" the country a constitution); Austrian Empire (revolts break out in Vienna, and in the provinces of Hungary, Bohemia, Croatia, Transylvania. In each order is restored and the Empire remains intact til 1867).

4.  Nationalism and the Unifications of Italy and Germany

Nationalism:  common language, literature and history; glorification of the heritage of the group; denigration of other ethnic groups (which became "ethnic cleansing" in the Balkans in the 1990s). Present in most political movements after the French Revolution, including German Unification (1871), the break up of the Austrian Empire (1867-1918), the break up of the Balkan republics (Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia) in the 1990s, the break up of the USSR in the 1990s; unification movements in India and Africa after World War II.