The Scientific Method

Chapter 1- Use with an open Mareib Human Anatomy and Physiology (7th ed.) textbook.
See also the introduction in the Mareib lab manual p. xi-xv.- Use with an open text.
 

What is Science? See also  sciemeth.ppt (PowerPoint)

Religion and Science take different approaches to answer questions about life.
Religion uses an intuitive approach to discover supernatural revelations. Religion
informs us on the meaning of our existence and morals. Science on the other hand is
natural and rational. Only phenomena which occur in nature can be studied and
explained. Science cannot inform us on morals nor address questions which involve a
supernatural origin. Science cannot address the question of whether there is a
creator.
 
 

Comparison	Religion	Science
Method of knowledge	Revelation	Scientific Method
Thought process	Intuition and faith	Rational/logical - induction and deduction of testable premises
Objectives	Explain the supernatural Derive morals and ethics*	Explain natural phenomena

*Morals are rules, they tell us what we must do. Ethics are derived from values, they
tell us what we ought to do.

However Science has an overarching ethic - honesty. Scientific reputations are made
or destroyed according to the accuracy and honesty of research. Science continually
reexamines previous research looking for faults and better explanations. Scientists
become famous when they prove previously accepted explanations as being false. A
good example is Pasteur's and Redi's falsification of the theory of spontaneous
generation of organisms from rotting broth or meat, respectively. When Pasteur
sterilized his broth, no bacteria or fungi grew in his flasks . When Redi
covered the meat with gauze and prevented flies from laying eggs on the meat, Hey!,
no maggots! Then science had a new theory - the theory of biogenesis
which proposes that all organisms are the results of reproduction of existing
organisms of the same type.

Two Types of Science

1. Experimental (described below)

2. Descriptive: species are described using mathematical and other precise terms
(e.g., color, geometric shape).
[Nevertheless, any underlying assumptions or conclusions of descriptive science
must be testable and falsifiable.]

The Scientific Method - See the Mareib lab manual p. xi-xv.

The Scientific Method was first described by Bacon in 1604. It is a method of
describing nature more reliably than previous, more intuitive methods.

1. Observation of a phenomenon - an occurrence in nature.
2. Construction of a tentative explanation, a hypothesis. In order for the

explanation to be a scientific hypothesis, the explanation must be testable and
falsifiable using the scientific method. Hypotheses which are not testable or
falsifiable (e.g., beliefs) are not scientific hypotheses. Hypotheses are constructed
using the logical procedure called inductive reasoning - specific observations are
used to propose a more general explanation of a natural phenomenon.
3. Use of controlled experiments and description of phenomena using numbers

(quantification of data is the Hallmark of Science). When predictions are made,
for example on the reactions in a series of test tubes with differing ingredients,
deductive reasoning is applied - that is, from a general explanation to specific
occurrences. A control is a group which has all the characteristics
of the experimental group except the one being tested. Statistics is the mathematical
science used to test whether the data supports or adds evidence to (avoid the use of
the word "proves", there is no final proof in science) the hypothesis, or
refutes (falsifies) the hypothesis.

Good scientific experiments use controls which have all the
characteristics of the experimental group except one - the one principle (e.g., an
antibiotic) being tested. Controls also may remain constant while the experimental
groups vary in their effects. A good example of the use of the Scientific Method
is the "double blind" experiment used to test drug effectiveness. A control group receives a
sugar pill or placebo instead of the drug being tested. Neither the patients or
medical personnel administering the pills know whether the placebo or the drug
being tested is given. Is this ethical?

Why do scientists insist on a controlled experiment? Science strives for
reliable descriptions of natural phenomena.
 

4. After experimentation has added much evidence and the hypothesis predicts new

discoveries, it may be called called a theory. In science, most theories are general
ideas; so, most hypotheses don't become theories. Remember: scientific theories
are strong ideas with much evidence! The Atomic Theory predicted the discovery
of the 104 types of atoms known today. The theory of evolution, that is descent with
modification, or genetic changes in organisms over time, predicted antibiotic resistance
occurring and spreading in bacteria and mutations in viruses changing their protein coats,
therefore changing the virus' ability to be recognized by the immune system. Theories will
remain theories, not becoming Scientific Laws, if they are general ideas and not
mathematically precise, e.g., Dalton's Atomic Theory. Scientific laws can be
imbedded within theories. See figure 1, below.
 
5. After a great deal of confirmation, a concept can become a

scientific law or principle. Remember: In science all Theories and Laws
remain hypotheses in the sense that they can and are retested over and over again,
modified or discarded if they are disproved or falsified. Scientific Laws are
mathematically precise. Some authors refer to a very strongly supported theory as
a scientific principle.

Is Astrology a science?

There are three characteristics of a pseudoscience:

(1.) Their assumptions are not testable (in some cases, testing has not taken place or testing has not supported the assumptions) or more importantly falsifiable using the scientific method; i.e. crystal healing, psychokinesis, existence of a Creator, U.F.O.s, phrenology, channeling, handwriting analysis of personality, etc. Science should avoid the use of the word "belief" in describing scientific explanations because it is too easily associated with a religious belief that does not require natural evidence..

(2.) Their evidence is anecdotal (poorly documented stories). They do not use controlled experiments or analyze data with statistics. (3.) The use of technical jargon. (4. ) Appeals of secret knowledge and appeals of persecution.

Quackery is a pseudoscientific practice used to convince the gullible that their
illnesses may be cured. They are characterized by the use of scientific jargon,
untested curative potions or machines, and the offering of anecdotal evidence for their success.

Remember: Extraordinary claims require extraordinarily strong evidence.

For a comprehensive view of pseudoscientific medical practices, see
Quackwatch at http://www.quackwatch.com/
and http://www.csicop.org/

For a comprehensive  review of the characteristics of pseudoscience see:
http://www.theness.com/pseudo.html

____________________________________________________________________________________
AN INTERESTING ISSUE - A Professional Viewpoint

John V. Aliff, Ph.D.

Professor, Georgia Perimeter College

Editor, Georgia Journal of Science

Published in the Strategies for Success Newsletter, Spring 2006, Benjamin Cummings -Pearson Publishing.

Challenging the "Theory" of Intelligent Design in Class. What do we teach about the nature of science?

The Problem

A grass-roots political revolution to redefine science and what we teach has been underway in this country since Presidential candidate Ronald Reagan raised the issue in 1980.  This leaves biologists and other scientists with the problem of defusing the "bomb" that the late Carl Sagan described this way:  "We have arranged things that almost no one understands science  . . .  "Sooner or later this combustible mixture of ignorance and power is going to blow up in our faces."  In this paper I present a design for lecturing and leading discussions on the subject that I have used successfully.

First, we must understand the emotional responses of many of our students to discussions of evolution.  In the biographies of leading creationists and I.D. advocates, we read of their former teachers using science (scientism) as a proof for atheism.  They were offended by the assertion.  Many students believe that it is "unfair" for science not to include supernatural hypotheses of the origin of the earth.  For a few students, religion is scientifically true and science is religiously true -- one view of the "principle of scriptural inerrancy."  The best way to deal with these realities is to teach the methods and objectivity of science.

What is Science? -- Making the definitions clearer

1. In a very general sense, science is a method of explaining the observable with the observable.  The popular view of science is that it is any systematic approach, expressed with technical jargon.  That leads many to think of astrology or intelligent design as scientific.  A professional view of the definition of science is this: "Science is a rigorous, systematic attempt to support or reject (falsify) explanations of natural phenomena."  Astrology may have star charts and "principles," but there is no evidence that the position of planets at our birth determines our respective fates.  For "believers" in astrology, their assumptions cannot be disproved. It is the same for the scientific sounding "theory of intelligent design."  Most students come to our classes believing in Intelligent Design, but are confused as to whether it is a scientific concept.  A good question to begin discussion is this: "Is there any scientific discovery that could falsify a supernatural explanation of nature?"

2. Science is not an ideology; it is a methodology.  Science does not tell us what to think, but how to think.  The naturalism of the scientific method is different from philosophical naturalism, which asserts that human experience can only be explained by nature.  By definition, philosophical naturalism rejects supernatural explanations.  Students should be taught the meaning of scientific naturalism.  An instructor should avoid the vague term "believe" in describing evidence.  To continue class discussion an instructor could ask, "Which is a more scientific statement? 1.  Scientists believe in evolution." or "Scientists accept evidence that evolution has occurred."

3. Science and Religion are different.  Religion and science take different approaches to answer questions about life.  Religion uses an intuitive approach to discover supernatural revelations.  A religion's scriptures are, defined from the academic area of theology, "revealed knowledge."  Therefore, religion informs us on the meaning of our existence and morals.  Science on the other hand is natural and rational in its use of the scientific method.  In other words, logic is used to develop explanations and predictions of occurrences in nature.  All scientific hypotheses must be falsifiable.  If they are not, e.g., Intelligent Design; the explanation has to be abandoned.   Why?  The processes of design (creation) by a supernatural being cannot be manipulated in an experiment or disproved by any observation.  The only identifiable hypothesis of Intelligent Design "theory" is as follows: "If the development (evolution?) of a complex system is not understood, it had to be supernaturally designed."  An instructor could use the hypothesis of I.D. as a discussion question.

4. A religious view of nature can stand alone on its merits.  Religious faith (belief), as theology defines it, does not depend on material evidence.  The demand made by advocates of Intelligent Design and creationists for scientific evidence for a Creator (designer) forces a materialist definition upon religious faith.  One could follow with this question: "Can one hold religious faith and accept evidence of that random processes can result in functional systems?"  The discussion can get lively here.

Religion Compared to Science

Table 1.1

*Many view science and scientists as anti-religious.  Is it?

5.  Science cannot create an ethic or moral, but science can inform one in the process of making ethical decisions.  Science can describe the anatomy and physiology of an embryo, but it cannot state whether it is ethical to clone that embryo.  The values used in ethical decision-making come from religions or cultural traditions.  Continuing one can ask, "Can scientists be ethical when the method of science does not prescribe ethics?"

6. Science is a dynamic method because it is self-correcting.  Certain explanations of the past have been disproved by current research.  Science continually reexamines previous research looking for better explanations.  Scientists become famous when they show previously accepted explanations false and supplant them with new explanations.  The scientific explanations of today will not be as good as those in the future, given that science will continue its process of discovery, unrestricted by political action.  Then one can ask, "Will some of the information I am going to teach in this course be regarded as inaccurate 100 years from now?" and "Are the 'ten commandments' or the 'pillars of Islam' self correcting?"

Table 1.2 - Common Misconceptions about Science and Scientists
 

Conclusion

Overcoming the cloud of misinformation that envelopes and obscures the methods and activities of science and scientists is the most important challenge for science educators today.  The real battles are to be fought in the classroom, media, and in the political arena, the latter being one in which scientists do not generally participate.  We expect the truth of our descriptions will win over emotion without us reaching out to the general public.  We are sadly mistaken.  The process of scientific discovery is precious. We must protect it by teaching it in light of the proper role of religion.

-
Characteristics of Life - See page 8//5 of the text.

1. Reproduction - all living things reproduce after their kind. Viruses do
this well, but only in a living host cell.

2. Growth - all living things increase in size. Viruses do not grow in the
sense of growing larger.

3. Responsiveness - all living organisms respond to environmental stimuli.
Viruses do not respond to anything other than inside host cells.

4. Adaptation - organisms show some ability to adapt to their environment.
As the climate changed from cool-moist to hot-dry, some ground squirrels
learned to aestivate, or sleep heavily during extreme desert heat.

5. All living things are composed of cells. This is an early 19th century idea
of Schleiden and Schwann. Cells are composed of small organelles including
a cell membrane with transport gates (most important), nucleus, ribosomes,
mitochondria, etc. A virus, which is a nucleic acid core coated with protein
and no cell membrane of its own construction (it has one derived from the
host cell), is too simple to be a cell.

6. All living things have amounts of SPONCH elements (Sulphur, Phosphorus,
Oxygen, Nitrogen, Carbon and Hydrogen).

7. All living organisms have macromolecules (assemblies of hundreds and
thousands of different atoms), e.g., proteins, starches, and nucleic acids
(inheritance chemicals).

8. Living things have metabolism; that is, they obtain energy storing compounds
(or make them from light as in plants); process those energy storing chemicals;
extract, store and use the energy; and excrete wastes - low energy level chemicals.
Living organisms have homeostasis, that is, balance keeping mechanisms to
maintain these energy resources so that the organism can survive and reproduce
successfully. Viruses apparently have no metabolism outside reproduction.

9. Some say that all organisms evolve, change genetically/structurally over time
(except extinct ones stopped!) Viruses change over time. There is a theory
that the AIDS virus originated in African Green Monkeys and evolved into
a human-infecting form.

10. All organisms are well organized into atoms and molecules, organelles
and cells, larger ones have tissues, organs, organ systems, organisms, populations,
communities, ecosystems, etc. What levels of organization does a virus have?
 
 

Answer the question - Are viruses alive or not? support each possibility.
 
 

Explain how professional scientists would look at crystal healing or astrology.
 
 

How do you recognize health "quackery."
 
 

Why do scientists use a "double blind" test for drugs? Think of several reasons.
 
 

A and P

Anatomy means to dissect, therefore anatomy is the study of structure.
Physiology deals with the function of those structures. Anatomy describes
the position and chambers of the heart, physiology describes functions like
beat rate and stroke volume. See page 3//2 of the textbook.

Homeostasis is a fundamental concept for the understanding of physiology
and disease. Homeostasis means same state, that is keeping a state of balance in the body.
There are two types. See pg.11-12. and Fig. 2, below.

Fig. 2

Negative feedback homeostasis produces a response or output opposite
to the stimulus (or stress) or input. See figure 2. For instance, you drink a gallon
of Poweraid when being a couch potato watching new year's day bowl games.
Poweraid is loaded with glucose and salts. Those go into your blood stream
and do two things, raise your blood volume and thus blood pressure, and it
raises your blood glucose. Remember osmosis? If you increase solutes in the blood,
water will flow towards those solutes and raise blood volume, then blood pressure
goes up. An input is an increase in blood glucose, the nervous system (the receptor,
control center and effector) is in the black box, the nervous system arranges for the
blood glucose lowering hormone insulin to be produced. The output is a lowering
of blood glucose. Notice that in negative feedback homeostasis, the sign, positive
or negative, is opposite for the input and output.  See page 10//9 of the text.

Positive feedback homeostasis  is characterized by the same sign in the input
and output and are many times related to disease processes. For instance the
vicious cycle of high blood pressure and arteriosclerosis. Arteriosclerosis or
hardening of the arteries make blood vessels less flexible and narrow. Many
effects proceed, poor circulation to the eyes and extremities, strokes, and
enlargement of the heart. High blood pressure as chronically endured by
uncontrolled diabetics causes arteriosclerosis, arteriosclerosis causes more
high blood pressure and so on in a vicious cycle. An increase in b.p. causes
a further increase in b.p. In end stage shock a drastic fall in blood and interstitial
(between cells) fluid pH (an increase in acidity) results in blood vessel dilation in
tissues (there was poor blood flow to begin with), the dilation causes a further
drop in interstitial fluid pH. This is positive feedback because the signs of the input
and output are the same, a drop in pH causes a further drop in pH. Some positive
feedback loops are normal. For instance, the action of oxytocin (pitocin in the hospital),
more oxytocin causes more frequent uterine contractions of labor which causes
more oxytocin which causes more uterine contractions. See pg. 10//9.

Medical Imaging (see pages 20-21, Text)

Many imaging techniques use forms of radiation produced by decaying or
excited atomic nuclei. Some forms are more dangerous than others. See
figure 3. In general, short wavelength forms have very high energy and can
therefore mutate the chemical of inheritance, DNA, and cause cancers or
the death of cells. In radiation therapy, beams of gamma rays are focused
on a tumor to 'burn out' the cancer cells. One goal of physicians has been
to lower the dosage of medical imaging x-rays or gamma rays which patients
are exposed to during their lifetime. Recently, a breast cancer gene (causative
in 5% of all breast cancers) has been discovered which is 'turned on' by
x-rays.

X-rays are produced when a high energy electron beam strikes a metal plate
in a cathode ray tube. Structures which absorb x-rays, like solid organs and
bones, produce white images on the negative. Problems are x-ray exposure as
above, and the overlapping of two dimensional structures.

CAT SCANS (Computerized Axial Tomography) were originally invented by
Garfield as a way to find good lasagna. Naaaa!

If  x-rays are taken in an arc around the body and fed into a computer,
a sectional view of organs can be obtained. Again, the use of x-rays is a problem.

PET (Positron Emission Tomography) Scans are produced when a patient
is injected with a radioactive substance, e.g., sugar, that produces positrons.
When the positrons collide with electrons, they destroy each other and produce
low levels of gamma rays which are imaged. The technique is highly useful for
diagnosing brain area dysfunction.

MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) uses a magnetic field to cause protons to realign and
radio waves that increase the energy of the protons, the radio wave relections are
then "read" by the image monitor. Radio waves are the least damaging form of
radiation. They are used to produce the MRI image. There is some debate
about whether high energy magnetic fields are dangerous or not, but most think not.

Ultra-Sound (Sonography) or echo cardiography (for the heart)
techniques use sound waves to produce images. They are not considered to be
dangerous.
 

What cant pregnant women get x-rays or PET scans?
 
 

Are there any medical procedures or treatments which do not have risk?
 
 
 

Is it contradictory that x-rays are used to treat cancer but that they can cause cancer?

Fig. 3

Study Questions
1. Debate pro and con whether viruses are alive.
2. Which forms of radiation are mutagenic and which forms are not?
3. Explain how the brain and the skin regulate body temperature.
 

jaliff @ gpc.edu