The following pages contain lists of learning objectives for students in Human Anatomy and Physiology II (BIOL 1612).  These are derived from objectives originally written for separate courses in Human Anatomy and Human Physiology I taught at Defiance College (Ohio) from 1986-1992, and unified courses in Human Anatomy and Physiology I & II I have taught at DeKalb College/Georgia Perimeter College since 1993.  Now they have been revised to reflect the content of BIOL 1612 as I teach it.  I have worked to write each item so an attentive student will understand what each objective demands.  However, I have found it very difficult, occasionally impossible, to make every objective unambiguous without giving away the expected response.

       These are written as statements of tasks you may be asked to perform on examinations, and every test question I ask is related to one or more of these items.  For this reason, students frequently refer to these "Student Learning Objectives" as "the study guide."  Certainly, they are intended as such.  Test items sometimes do restate objectives verbatim; it is more common, however, for an objective to inspire a question in some other format.  For example, an objective such as:

" 2.  List in order five chambers and/or tubes through which an molecule of food passes in the digestive system. "

may yield a multiple choice question like:

"The last part of the GI tract through which an unabsorbed nutrient molecule passes is the
 a. large intestine
 b. spleen
 c. vermiform appendix
 d. small intestine
 e. gall bladder."

You should remember this as you study.

       Because each test question must be derived from the objectives, you may challenge a question you believe can not be associated with an objective.  I have (rarely) thrown out test questions so challenged.

       As imperative statements every objective includes a verb, which declares the nature of the response I expect.  "Name" or "List" means that a stated number of one or two word (rarely more) answers will be sufficient. "State" or "Cite" means that the answer usually requires one or more complete sentences, but less than a paragraph.  "Describe" means that you should create a word picture of whatever the objective asks.  Usually, this requires more than one sentence, i.e., a short paragraph.  "Explain" goes beyond description to show a cause and effect relationship between two or more phenomena.  Again, such an objective requires a short (occasionally not so short) paragraph.  Many students include diagrams with their answers to "Describe" or "Explain" questions, and this is a good idea, (A picture is still worth a great many words.) but not required. "Draw" or "Diagram" means simply to sketch a picture of whatever is asked and to label your picture as specified.  Usually these objectives ask for no writing other than the labels.  I hope that the few other verbs will be clear.  Of course, you should ask about any objective that troubles you, please.

      Ironically, use of these objectives as a study guide becomes a problem for some students.  These are the people who plead after a test, ". . . but I did my objectives!"  To work through the objectives (once) is NOT enough.  Having answered the objectives, a student should review and discuss them and the appropriate responses with other students until they are understood, not just memorized.  I urge you to form study groups to work on the objectives together.  The very best way to learn is to teach each other, and if some objective confuses everyone in your group, it must be something we should discuss again in class.

      The organisms (humans) and ideas we will study this quarter are complex and wonderful (far more complex than you've imagined).  I hope you'll enjoy studying them as much as I do.  (After more than 30 years, I still find new and fascinating things in biology.)  And, I hope you find these objectives an important guide in your studies.

Dunwoody, GA
18 Oct., 2004

ref: Marieb & Hoehn (2007), Chapter 1, pp. 4-12.

1.     List five characteristics all living organisms share, and apply these to specific examples.

2.     Explain the importance of homeostasis in any living organism.

3.     List the three components of all homeostatic control mechanisms, and describe their interaction.

4.     Name the two kinds of feedback, describe the characteristics of each, and explain why most homeostatic systems use negative feedback.

5.     Describe an example of negative feedback in a biological system, and explain why it exemplifies negative feedback.

6.     State two kinds of physiological responses to cooling and two responses to heating of a human body.

7.     Explain two reasons the blood glucose concentration must be maintained within narrow limits, and state the normal upper and lower limits of human blood glucose concentration.

8.     State the roles of the liver and pancreas and hormones, insulin and glucagon, in glucose homeostasis.

9.     Describe two examples of homeostatic systems in humans other than body temperature and blood glucose regulation.

10.     Describe an example of positive feedback in a biological system, and explain why it exemplifies positive feedback.

11.     State the homeostatic functions of the eleven principal organ systems.

12.     Name a major organ of each principal system, or given a major organ, identify the system to which it belongs.

13.    Define or explain the meaning of the following terms (sys. = system):
 

ref: Marieb & Hoehn (2007), Chapter 2.

1.    Explain the differences between matter and energy, and between kinetic, potential, and chemical energy.

2.    Diagram the electron configurations of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur.

3.    Explain the differences among ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds.

4.    Explain why carbon is the most important element in biological chemistry.

5.    Diagram and identify the molecular configurations of methane, water, ethane, propane, ethyl alcohol, acetic acid, a generalized amino acid, glycerol, a fatty acid, and a 6-carbon simple sugar.

6.    Diagram and identify the methyl, hydroxyl, carboxyl, and amino functional groups.

 7.    Name an organic molecule or set of organic molecules (e.g., alcohols, monosaccharides) in which each of the above functional groups can be found.

 8.    Name the monomers that combine to make polysaccharides, fats, and proteins.

 9.    Name the macromolecules composed of simple sugars, glycerol and fatty acids, and amino acids.

10.    Given a diagram of a molecule, identify it as a carbohydrate, fat, or polypeptide (protein).

11.    Diagram a disaccharide, a fat, and a dipeptide.

12.    Given a diagram of two molecules, diagram the product(s) of a dehydration synthesis to unite them.

13.    Given a diagram of a small polymer, diagram product(s) of the hydrolysis of the molecule.

14.    Name two kinds of polysaccharides involved in human physiology.

15.    Describe the relationship of protein structure to function.

16.    Explain why enzymes must catalyze the chemical reactions in living cells.

17.    List two functional properties of enzymes.

18.    Describe the process by which an enzyme catalyzes a reaction according to the lock-and-key model; use the terms "active site" and "substrate."

19.    Name the two kinds of nucleic acids.

20.    List the three parts of a nucleotide.

21.    Describe the importance of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) in living systems.

22.    Define or explain the meaning of the following terms:
 

ref: Marieb & Hoehn (2007), Ch. 23.

 1.    List four functions of the digestive system.

 2.    List in order five chambers and/or tubes through which a molecule of food passes in the digestive system.

 3.    List and describe the histology and arrangement of the four layers (tunics) of the wall of the digestive tract.

 4.    Name the two parts of the palate.

 5.    List the three sets of major salivary glands.

 6.    List three constituents of saliva, and state two functions of saliva.

 7.    Describe the typical structure of a tooth.

 8.    Describe the deciduous and permanent dentitions in terms of the number of teeth of each kind.

 9.    List the three stages of swallowing, and describe the process of swallowing, including the roles of the soft palate, swallowing center of the medulla, pharyngeal muscles, epiglottis, and esophageal muscles.

10.    State the function of the esophagus.

11.    List the four parts and describe the structure and function of the stomach.

12.    List four kinds of cells in gastric glands, and name a principal secretion of each.

13.    Name the principal protease active in the stomach, and describe how pepsinogen is converted to pepsin.

14.    State the functions of mucus, pepsin, hydrochloric acid, and gastrin in the stomach.

15.    List the three phases of regulation of gastric secretion and motility, and describe what occurs during each phase.

16.    Describe the nervous pathways (circuits) responsible for long and short reflexes; describe the functions of long and short reflexes in regulation of digestive system activity.

17.    Describe the gross & histological structure of the pancreas, and state its digestive function.

18.    Describe the union of the pancreatic duct and common bile duct with the duodenum.

19.    List four enzymes or proenzymes contained in pancreatic juice and state the function of each.

20.    Name two pancreatic proenzymes and the active enzymes derived from them.

21.    Explain why proteases are secreted as proenzymes that must be activated in the lumen of the stomach or duodenum.

22.    Explain why four or more proteases are needed to hydrolyze proteins to amino acids and dipeptides.

23.    List four functions of the liver (see also pp. 977-979, Table 24.7).

24.    Diagram and describe the organization of a liver lobule and its associated blood and bile vessels.

25.    Describe the digestive functions of the liver, gall bladder, and bile.

26.    List three digestive hormones and state the specific sources and two effects of each.

27.    List in order the three parts of the small intestine.

28.    State three ways the area of the intestinal mucosa is increased over the area of a tube 30 cm long and 4 cm in diameter.

29.    State two functions of the large intestine.

30.    List in order the four principal regions of the large intestine and three parts of the colon.

31.    Describe the course of the large intestine from the ileocecal valve to the anal canal; name its parts, state where they are in the body, and how they are connected.

32.    Describe the process that stimulates and controls defecation.

33.    List three brush border enzymes and state their functions.

34.    Describe the processes of digestion of polysaccharides, triglycerides, and proteins; include the names of enzymes (and other chemicals) involved and the locations where these processes occur.

35.    Name two mechanisms by which nutrients are absorbed in the small intestine, and describe the absorption of carbohydrates, amino acids, electrolytes and water.

36.    Describe the absorption of triglycerides, monoglycerides, and fatty acids, and their transport from the villi.

37.    Define/locate the following terms/structures:
 

ref: Marieb & Hoehn (2007), Ch. 24.

 1.    List the three fates of food molecules following absorption by the GI tract.

 2.    List five principal classes of nutrients.

 3.    List two fat-soluble and two water-soluble vitamins and state one function of each (see Table 24.2).

 4.    List four vital minerals and state one important role of each (see Table 24.3).

 5.    State the two Laws of Thermodynamics.

 6.    State the importance of energy for living systems.

 7.    List the three components of energy output.

 8.    State the role of ATP in metabolism.  (See also "Chemistry" #21)

 9.    State the function of cellular respiration, and write a summary equation for cellular respiration.

10.    List the four parts of cellular respiration, and state the cellular location for each.

11.    Describe verbally and/or in an equation or diagram what occurs in glycolysis, and list the products of glycolysis.

12.    Describe the costs and benefits of glycolysis in terms of ATP.

13.    Describe the two possible fates of pyruvic acid and the conditions that determine its fate.

14.    Name the type and product of anaerobic respiration used by animals.

15.    Describe verbally and/or in an equation or diagram what occurs in the "transitional steps" of aerobic respiration, and list the reactants and products of the "transitional steps."

16.    Describe verbally and/or in an equation or diagram what occurs in the Krebs cycle, and list the reactants and products of the Krebs cycle.

17.    List the reactants and final products of the electron transport chain.

18.    State the value of NADH₂ in terms of ATP.

19.    Describe how the oxygen you inspire is used in cellular respiration.

20.    Describe where the carbon dioxide you expire comes from.

21.    List the gross and net production of ATP from glycolysis and complete aerobic respiration of one glucose molecule.

22.    Given that complete oxidation of glucose releases 686 kcal of energy and that 262 kcal are stored in ATP during cellular respiration, state what happens to the other 424 kcal.  (Remember the Laws of Thermodynamics.)

23.    List three possible fates or uses for glucose molecules.

24.    State three possible fates of lipids in the diet.

25.    Name the cellular location, reactants, products and purpose of beta oxidation.

26.    State two possible fates of dietary amino acids.

27.    State the metabolic significance of deamination of amino acids.

28.    Name two principal metabolic pathways each active during the absorptive and postabsorptive states.

29.    Name the sources and three normal metabolic uses of cholesterol.

30.    State the dietary sources and describe the uses in the body of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, and minerals.

31.    Describe how hypothalamic and brain stem feeding and satiety centers may regulate food intake.

32.    Describe the function of the hypothalamic thermoregulatory centers (p. 987).

33.    List four factors that influence metabolic rate (MR), and describe how each affects MR.

34.    List three physical mechanisms of heat transfer, and describe how heat is produced and conserved or disposed of by a human body.

35.    Define or explain the meaning of the following terms:
 

ref: Marieb & Hoehn (2007), Ch. 18.

 1.    Describe the approximate size and location of the heart in an adult, and state the function of the whole heart.

 2.    Name the body cavity surrounding the heart, and list in order the three layers of heart wall.

 3.    Name the two circuits associated with the two sides of the heart, and state the function of each.

 4.    Describe the route of a blood cell from the right atrium through the pulmonary and systemic circuits and back to the right atrium, naming in order all chambers, major vessels, and organs through which it must pass.

 5.    List and identify the two major arteries and one major vein of the coronary circulation.

 6.    List and identify the four valves in the heart, describe the location of each, and explain how valves prevent backflow of blood.

 7.    Name the structures that prevent the atrioventricular valves from opening into the atria.

 8.    Describe the events that produce the heart sounds and explain the causes of murmurs.

 9.    Name two diseases/disorders of the coronary circulation.

10.    Describe how pacemaker potentials are believed to stimulate action potentials in the sinoatrial node.

11.    Name the two nodes that determine the rate (pacemaker) and timing of the heartbeat.

12.    Describe the conduction of depolarization from the SA node to the atrial myocardium and AV node and from the AV node to the ventricular walls.

13.    State two kinds of evidence that the SA node is the heart's pacemaker.

14.    Identify the P wave, QRS complex, and T wave on a diagram of a typical electrocardiogram, and name the events represented by the P wave, QRS complex, and T wave.

15.    List three cardiac abnormalities that are detectable with an electrocardiogram.

16.    Explain why systolic pressure in the left ventricle (120 mm Hg) is much higher than that in the right ventricle (20 mm Hg).

17.    Name the two measurements whose product is cardiac output (i.e.  A X B = cardiac output);  given values for these, calculate cardiac output.

18.    List three factors that regulate stroke volume.

19.    List three factors that affect heart rate.

20.    Describe the effects of age, body size, and gender on heart rate.

21.    Locate and/or define or explain the meaning of the following terms:
 

ref: Marieb & Hoehn (2007), Ch. 19.

1.    List and define the three kinds of blood vessels, and state two ways arteries differ from veins.

2.    List the three tunics of a blood vessel, and name the tissues that compose each.

3.    Name and describe the differences between the two kinds of arteries, and cite an example of each; state the functions of smooth muscle and elastic fibers in arterial walls.

4.    State the formula for blood flow (p. 722).

5.    Graph the relative flow velocities and cross sectional areas of the aorta, arteries, capillaries, venules, and veins (p. 733, see Fig. 19.13).

6.    Describe the changes in distribution of blood to the brain, viscera, kidneys, heart, skin, and skeletal muscles from rest to maximal exercise (pp. 732-736, Fig. 19.12).

7.    Describe the effect of exercise and/or hypoxia on skeletal muscles, the brain, the skin, the lungs, and the heart .

8.    List three factors that directly affect systemic arterial blood pressure.

9.    Identify and define the two numbers that express arterial blood pressure, identify the parts of the cardiac cycle causing these values, and state the normal adult values of blood pressure.

10.    List three factors that affect vascular resistance (VR) and state the effect of each on VR.

11.    List three mechanisms that control blood pressure homeostasis and blood flow to specific tissues.

12.    List two autonomic reflexes involved in regulation of blood pressure (p. 726).

13. Name the sensory receptors and control center for blood pressure, and explain how and why they affect blood pressure; describe how a change in blood pressure in the carotid sinuses causes changes in the arteries and heart.

14. Describe the responses of baroreceptors, the cardiovascular center, and endocrine organs to a drop in blood pressure, such as caused by donation of one pint of blood.

15. Explain the effects of exercise on systolic pressure, diastolic pressure, heart rate, and cardiac output.

16. List four signs and symptoms of shock.

17. List three hormones that affect blood pressure, and describe how each exerts its effects.

18. List four ways substances may cross through capillary walls.

19. List two kinds of venous "pumps" (pp. 723-724).

20. List three sites where the pulse may be palpated.

21. Given the name of an artery or vein, state whether it contains oxygenated or deoxygenated blood.

22. List the three parts of the aorta.

23. Name the first pair of arteries to branch from the ascending aorta.

24. List the three large arteries that arise from the aortic arch.

25. Name the two branches of the brachiocephalic artery (trunk).

26. Name the two branches of each common carotid artery.

27. Describe the arterial blood flow to the head and brain from the common carotid and vertebral arteries to the circle of Willis.

28. List three arteries (or pairs of arteries) that branch from the aorta inferior to the diaphragm.

29. Name two branches of the celiac trunk.

30. Name the arteries that represent the terminal bifurcation of the aorta and the two main branches of each.

31. List four arteries of an upper limb (branches and/or distal segments of the subclavian arteries).

32. List four arteries of a lower limb (branches and /or distal segments of the external iliac arteries).

33. List the three large veins that empty blood into the right atrium.

34. List three veins that drain into the superior vena cava.

35. List three veins that drain into the inferior vena cava.

36. Describe the venous drainage from the head and brain.

37. Describe the route of blood through the hepatic portal system.

38. List four veins of an upper limb (branches and/or distal segments of the subclavian vein).

39. Name the superficial anterior vein from which blood is often drawn at the elbow.

40. List four veins of a lower limb (branches and/or distal segments of the external iliac vein).

41. List four unique anatomical features of fetal circulation and name the post-fetal vestige of each (pp. 1126-1127).

42. For each artery below, name the region(s) to which it delivers blood.

43. For each vein below, name the region(s) from which it receives blood.

44. Locate and/or define or explain the meaning of the following terms:   (a. = artery; v. = vein)
 

ref: Marieb & Hoehn (2007), Ch. 17.

 1.     Describe the functions of the cardiovascular system.

 2.     List three divisions of extracellular fluid.

 3.     List three functions of blood.

 4.    List four substances or groups of substances transported in blood (p. 646 & Table 17.1).

 5.     Describe the composition of blood, including the relative proportions of water, solutes, plasma, red cells, and white cells.

 6.     Name and state the functions of the two "colors" of blood cells.

 7.     Name the tissue where blood cells are produced in adults.

 8.     Describe the size and shape of a mature RBC.

 9.     State the function and cellular location of hemoglobin, and state the number of O₂ molecules that can bind to one hemoglobin molecule.

10.     Name the two parts of a hemoglobin molecule and identify the part containing an iron ion.

11.    Name the hormone that stimulates erythropoiesis, name its source organ, and state two conditions under which its secretion should be increased.

12.     Describe the fates of iron ions and the globin portion of hemoglobin following RBC death.

13.    List three causes of anemias.

14.     List and distinguish among the five main types of WBCs, state the functions of each type, and state the approximate percentage of each in a normal differential WBC count.

15.     Describe the production and state the function of platelets (or thrombocytes).

16.     List three mechanisms of hemostasis.

17.     Describe the roles of prothrombin activator, prothrombin, thrombin, fibrinogen, fibrin, and calcium ions in the clotting of blood.

18.     Name a genetic disorder of the clotting process.

19.     Describe the roles of plasmin and heparin in fibrinolysis and hemostatic control.

20.     Describe the biochemical basis of ABO and Rh blood grouping, and explain which donor types may be transfused to which recipients.

21.     Locate and/or define or explain the meaning of the following terms:
 

ref: Marieb & Hoehn (2007), Ch. 22.

 1.    List the three functional meanings of respiration (lecture).

 2.    Name the two divisions of gas exchange.

 3.    Name the anterior and posterior openings of the nasal cavity, and name the bones that form the nasal cavity.

 4.    List the three pairs of nasal conchae and state their function.

 5.    List the three regions of the pharynx.

 6.    List three cartilages of the larynx.

 7.    State the function of the epiglottis in swallowing.

 8.    Describe how the respiratory system and larynx in particular control amplitude (loudness) and pitch of the voice.

 9.    Describe the gross and histological structure of the trachea; list the three layers of tissues in the trachea.

10.    List three parts of the defense of the lungs/respiratory system, and describe the function of each.

11.    State the arrangement of lobar bronchi with respect to the lobes of each lung.

12.    Name and describe the structures in the lungs where gas exchange occurs.

13.    Describe the route(s) of blood flow to the lungs and alveoli.

14.    Name and state the functions of the two types of alveolar epithelial cells.

15.    List four layers of the alveolar-capillary membrane.

16.    Name the cavity in which each lung lies.

17.    List the lobes of each lung.

18.    List, in order, four tubes, chambers, or cavities through which an oxygen molecule passes en route to the lungs, or through which a carbon dioxide molecule passes en route to the atmosphere.

19.    Name the two parts of pulmonary ventilation, and state or identify the conditions (pressures) under which each occurs.

20.    Name the two factors whose product is proportional to the rate of air flow.

21.    List three muscles that cause inspiration and three that cause expiration.

22.    Name two non-muscular mechanisms that cause lung collapse and expiration.

23.    Identify the tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, residual volume, and vital capacity on a spirometer graph.

24.    Describe the relationships among tidal volume, inspiratory reserve volume, expiratory reserve volume, residual volume, and vital capacity.

25.    State the locations where oxygen and carbon dioxide are most and least concentrated, and explain how the concentration gradients are maintained.

26.    List three factors that affect the diffusion rates of oxygen and carbon dioxide, and state how a change in each changes diffusion rate.

27.    Describe how hemoglobin affects the quantity of oxygen that blood can carry.

28.    Graph the normal oxygen dissociation curve for hemoglobin and explain the significance of the height of the curve at partial pressures of oxygen between 10 and 100 mm Hg.

29.    Explain the significance of a shift of hemoglobin's oxygen dissociation curve to the right (down) in exercising tissues (i.e., at lower pH and higher temperature).

30.    Graph the oxygen dissociation curves for fetal and maternal  hemoglobin, and explain the significance of the difference between the curves.

31.    Graph the oxygen dissociation curves for myoglobin and hemoglobin, and explain the significance of the difference between the curves.

32.    Name three forms in which carbon dioxide is transported in blood.

33.     Describe the role of the respiratory system in regulating blood pH (p. 861) (see also FLUID #12).

34.    Describe the role of the dorsal, ventral, and pontine respiratory centers in regulating breathing.

35.    List three diseases or disorders of the respiratory system  and state a common cause for them.

36.    Define/locate the following terms/structures:
 

ref: Marieb & Hoehn (2007), Ch. 25.

 1.    Name two functions of the kidneys and urinary system.

 2.    List three categories of substances whose concentrations are regulated by the urinary system.

 3.    Describe the location, position, and structure of the kidneys.

 4.    Name the two layers of a kidney.

 5.    List the three functions of a nephron.

 6.    Name the two parts of a renal corpuscle and state its function(s) and location.

 7.    List in order the three parts of a renal tubule and state their functions and locations.

 8.    Diagram a nephron and label the glomerulus, Bowman's capsule, proximal convoluted tubule, distal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, and collecting duct.

 9.    Describe glomerular filtration, including the roles of fenestrated endothelium and podocytes.

10.    List three structural features of renal corpuscles that enhance their filtering capacity.

11.    State the differences between blood plasma and capsular fluid (filtrate), and between capsular fluid and urine.

12.    List three mechanisms that regulate glomerular filtration rate.

13.    Describe the roles of diffusion, osmosis, and active transport in tubular reabsorption.

14.    Describe the relationship of active transport of sodium ions to tubular reabsorption of water and glucose.

15.    List and state the effects of three hormones that affect osmoregulation (see also Fluid #8).

16.    Describe the roles of macula densa, juxtaglomerular cells, renin, and angiotensin II in osmoregulation.

17.    State the effects of aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) on tubule and collecting duct cells.

18.    Describe the effects of alcohol on ADH and, indirectly, distal convoluted tubule and collecting duct cells.

19.    Describe the effect of caffeine on tubule cells and reabsorption.

20.    Name two substances that normally enter kidney tubules by tubular secretion.

21.    Explain how the loop of Henle functions to concentrate or dilute urine and why this function is significant in overall kidney function.

22.    Describe the course of urea through a nephron, and state the proportion of urea that is reabsorbed.

23.    Describe the structure and function of the ureters.

24.    Describe the connection of the ureters to the bladder and explain how this connection prevents reflux of urine into the ureters.

25.    Describe the gross and histological structure of the urinary bladder and state the range of size (minimum to maximum) of the urinary bladder.

26.    State the function of the urethra, and describe the difference(s) in the urethra between the sexes.

27.    Describe the neural control of urination.

28.    List in order five tubes or chambers through which a urea molecule passes while being excreted.

29.    Define/locate the following terms/structures:
 

ref: Marieb & Hoehn (2007), Ch. 26.

 1.    List two "fluid compartments" of body water and state the approximate percentage of body fluid in each.

 2.    State the approximate proportion of body weight that is water in a male and/or female of normal body proportions.

 3.    List three general functions of electrolytes.

 4.    Name the two most abundant cations and anions in plasma, interstitial fluid, and intracellular fluid.

 5.    State a principal function each of sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, phosphate, and magnesium.

 6.    List three sources of water input and four causes of water output; state the relative importance of each to the body's water balance.

 7.    Explain the role of the hypothalamus in regulating water balance, and state two ways dehydration stimulates thirst.

 8.    List three hormones that regulate fluid output (see also Urinary Sys. #15).

 9.    List three disorders of water balance.

10.    List three major mechanisms the body uses to regulate hydrogen ion concentration.

11.    List the three principal buffer systems of body fluids.

12.    Write a chemical equation that shows why carbon dioxide lowers pH.

13.     Describe the roles of the lungs and respiratory centers of the medulla in regulating blood pH; explain how a change in blood pH causes a change in respiratory rate.

14.    Describe the roles of the kidneys and lungs in regulating blood pH.

15.    State one possible cause each of acidosis and alkalosis.

16.    Define or explain the meaning of the following terms:
 

ref: Marieb & Hoehn (2007), Ch. 16.

 1.    State the difference between endocrine and exocrine glands, and describe the structure and function of a typical endocrine gland.

 2.    List five endocrine glands.

 3.    List the four chemical groups to which hormones belong.

 4.    Name two examples each of steroid, biogenic amine, and peptide hormones.

 5.    Describe the mechanism by which steroid hormones and thyroid amines affect their target cells.

 6.    Describe the mechanism by which amine and peptide hormones affect their target cells.

 7.    Name the second messenger involved in the activation of target cells by some hormones, and explain why the responses of target cells vary.

 8.    Describe the roles of G-proteins and protein kinases in the physiological responses of target cells.

 9.    List three kinds of stimuli that promote or inhibit hormone secretion (pp. 610-611).

10.    Describe the gross structure of the pituitary gland including its connections to related structures.

11.    List and state the effects of four hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary.

12.    List and state the effects of three hormones secreted by the hypothalamus.

13.    Describe the structural and functional relationship of the posterior pituitary to the hypothalamus.

14.    Name and state the effects of two hormones produced in the hypothalamus and released from the posterior pituitary.

15.    Explain how the secretions of the adenohypophysis and neurohypophysis are controlled by the hypothalamus.

16.    Describe the location and gross structure of the thyroid and parathyroid glands and the relationship between them.

17.    Name and state the effects of three hormones secreted by the thyroid gland.

18.    Name two disorders associated with under- or over secretion by the thyroid gland.

19.    Name one hormone secreted by the parathyroid glands, state two of its effects, and describe how its secretion is regulated.

20.    Describe the location and gross structure of the adrenal glands, and name their two parts (layers).

21.    Name and state the effects of two hormones secreted by the adrenal cortex and two hormones secreted by the adrenal medulla.

22.    Describe how the secretions of the adrenal cortex and medulla are controlled.

23.    Name and describe the symptoms of two disorders that result from over secretion by the adrenal cortex.

24.    Name the endocrine tissue of the pancreas, and state the effects of two hormones secreted by the pancreas.

25.    Name the two kinds of hormone producing cells in the pancreas and name the hormone(s) each produces.

26.    Describe the differences in causes and symptoms between diabetes insipidus and diabetes mellitus.

27.    Name the gonads in each sex, and name three hormones secreted by the ovaries and two secreted by the testes.

28.    Name two hormones that play a role in regulation of each of the following: growth, blood pressure, water balance, calcium metabolism, energy metabolism, stress, endocrine organs, labor and lactation.

29.    Given a hormone listed below (#28), name its source organ and target tissue(s) and explain how its production/secretion is regulated.

30.    Locate and/or define or explain the meaning of the following terms:  (H. = hormone)
 

ref: Marieb & Hoehn (2007), Ch. 27, Ch. 28, pp. 1109-1118.

 1.    Name the male and female gametes.

 2.    State two functions of the male reproductive system.

 3.    Describe the structure and function of the scrotum, and explain the function of the dartos and cremaster muscles.

 4.    Describe the development of the testes and their descent into the scrotum in a male fetus.

 5. Describe the structure of a testis and the functions of its parts.

 6. Describe the location and structure, and state two functions of the epididymis.

 7. Describe the course of the vas deferens from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct.

 8. List four parts of the spermatic cord.

 9. List the three parts of the male urethra.

10. List in order four organs/tubules through which a sperm cell passes between the testis and the urethral orifice.

11. Name and state the function(s) of  three different glands that contribute to semen.

12. Describe the composition of semen at ejaculation including the average number and volume of sperm cells, and the relative contributions of semen-producing glands.

13. Name the three erectile tissues of the penis (2 names, two of the three are paired).

14. Describe the processes causing penile erection and ejaculation.

15. List in order four stages in the development of sperm cells and state the chromosome number of each stage.

16. List the three main parts of a sperm cell and the two organelles in its head; state the function of each part.

17. Explain the importance of the blood-testis barrier.

18. State the specific sources and describe the effects of gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH), FSH, LH, and testosterone in males.

19. State the sources and describe the effects of testosterone and inhibin on the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary.

20. State two developmental effects of androgens, or the lack of them, on a fetus; given an anatomical structure in either sex, identify its homolog in the other sex.

21.    List three functions of the female reproductive system.

22.    Describe the structure of an ovary.

23.    List in order four stages in the development of an ovum, state the chromosome number of each stage, and identify the stage that is ovulated in mammals.

24.    Describe the development of a follicle and its oocyte from the fetal ovary to ovulation.

25.    State what happens to follicle cells following ovulation.

26.    Describe the structure of a uterine tube, especially its lateral portion.

27.    Describe the typical structure and position of the uterus.

28.    List the three regions of the uterus, and the three layers of the uterine wall.

29.    Name and state the functions of the two layers (strata) of the endometrium.

30.    State two functions of the vagina.

31.    Describe the locations of the labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, urethral orifice, and vaginal orifice with respect to structures around them.

32.    List the two phases of the ovarian cycle and describe the sequence of events that results in ovulation.

33.    State the specific sources and effects of GnRH, FSH, LH, estrogens, progesterone, and testosterone in females, and describe the timing of secretion of each with respect to the menstrual and ovarian cycles.

34.    List three phases of the uterine (menstrual) cycle.

35.    State the specific source and effect of chorionic gonadotropin.

36.    State the sources and effects of relaxin and inhibin in females.

37.    List the three phases of intercourse in both sexes.

38.    Describe the anatomical organization of the glandular tissue (mammary glands) of the breasts. 

39.    Describe the roles of estrogens, prolactin, and oxytocin in development and function of mammary glands.

40.    List three risk factors for breast cancer.

41.    List three general strategies of contraception and for each name one specific method that uses that strategy.

42.    Describe the composition and explain the principle by which an oral contraceptive works.

43.    Define/locate the following terms/structures:
 

ref: Marieb & Hoehn (2007), Ch. 20-21.

 1. List three functions of the lymphatic system.

 2. Describe the structure of lymphatic capillaries that allows extracellular fluid to flow in but not out.

 3. State two causes of lymph flow from lymphatic capillaries to lymphatic ducts to the subclavian veins.

 4. Describe the courses and regions drained by the left and right lymphatic ducts, and state where lymph is emptied into the cardiovascular system.

 5. List three parts of the lymphatic system exclusive of its major organs.

 6. List four (primary and secondary) lymphatic organs and state their locations.

 7. Describe and diagram the structure and organization of a lymph node, and state two functions of lymph nodes.

8. Name three groups of lymph nodes and describe their locations.

 9. Describe the location, structure, and function(s) of the spleen.

10. Describe the location, structure, and function of the thymus, and describe the changes in the thymus from childhood to old age.

11. Name the three sets of tonsils and state the location of each.

12. Name two properties that distinguish innate (nonspecific) resistance from adaptive (specific) defenses.

13. List four of the body's mechanical and/or chemical barriers to microbes.

14. Name two types of phagocytes and state the type of WBC from which each develops.

15. List in order three phases of phagocytosis.

16. List the three stages of inflammation, and describe the inflammation response including the roles of basophils, mast cells, neutrophils, and macrophages.

17. List three mechanisms by which the complement system enhances resistance to microbes (pp. 794-795, Fig. 21.5).

18. Name the two types of adaptive or specific immune responses and list the types of lymphocytes associated with each.

19. Describe the processes that activate B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes, and the functions of these cells in immune responses.

20. Diagram and describe the structure and function of an antibody molecule (pp. 804-805, Fig. 21.12).

21. List three classes of antibodies.

22. Describe the mechanism(s) of immunological memory and explain its importance.

23. Define/locate the following terms/structures: