The following pages contain lists of Learning Objectives for students in Human Anatomy and Physiology I (BIOL 1611).  These are derived from objectives written for separate courses in Human Anatomy and Human Physiology I taught at Defiance College (Ohio) from 1986-1992.  Now, they have been revised to reflect the content of BIOL 1611 at Georgia Perimeter College.

      Every objective is written as a statement of a task you may be asked to perform on an examination, and every test question I ask is related to one or more of these items.  For this reason, students frequently refer to these "Student Learning Objectives" as "the study guide."  Certainly, they are intended as such.  I have worked to write each item in the terms used by the textbook so an attentive student will understand what each objective demands.  However, I have found it very difficult to make every objective completely unambiguous without giving away the expected response.  The student should use the objectives to study well ahead of the next exam so he/she has time to ask for clarification.

      Because each test question is derived from the objectives, you may challenge a question you believe can not be associated with an objective.  (I have [rarely] thrown out test questions so challenged.)  Test items sometimes do restate objectives verbatim; it is more common, however, for an objective to inspire a question in some other format.  For example, an objective such as:

" 2.  List and define four subdivisions each of anatomy and physiology. "

may yield a multiple choice question like:

"One subdivision of human anatomy is
 a. gross anatomy
 b. philosophy
 c. endocrinology
 d. neurophysiology
 e. obstetrics."

You should remember this as you study.

      As imperative statements every objective includes a verb, which declares the nature of the response I expect.  "Name" or "List" means that a stated number of one or two word (rarely more) answers will be sufficient. "State" or "Cite" means that the answer usually requires one or more complete sentences, but less than a paragraph.  "Describe" means that you should create a word picture of whatever the objective asks.  Usually, this requires more than one sentence, i.e., a short paragraph.  "Explain" goes beyond description to show a cause and effect relationship between two or more phenomena.  Again, such an objective requires a short (occasionally not so short) paragraph.  Many students include diagrams with their answers to "Describe" or "Explain" questions, and this is a good idea (A picture is still worth a great many words.) but not required.  "Draw" or "Diagram" means simply to sketch a picture of whatever is asked and to label your picture as specified.  Usually these objectives ask for no writing other than the labels.  I hope that the few other verbs will be clear.  Of course, you should ask about any objective that troubles you, --please.

      Ironically, use of these objectives as a study guide becomes a problem for some students.  These are the people who plead after a test, ". . . but I did my objectives!"  To work through the objectives (once) is not enough.  Having answered the objectives, a student should review and discuss them and the appropriate responses with other students until they are understood, not just memorized.  I urge you to form study groups to work on the objectives together.  The very best way to learn is to teach each other, and if some objective confuses everyone in your group, it must be something we should discuss again in class.

      The organisms (humans) and ideas we will study this quarter are complex and wonderful (far more complex than you've imagined).  I hope you'll enjoy studying them as much as I do.  (After more than 30 years, I still find new and fascinating things to learn in biology.)  And, I hope you find these objectives an important guide in your studies.

Dunwoody, GA
14 May, 2003
 
 

ref: Marieb and Hoehn (2007), Chapter 1.

1.     Define and distinguish between anatomy and physiology.

2.     List and define four subdivisions each of anatomy and physiology.

3.     State the principle of complementarity of structure and function.

4.     List in order the eleven levels of biological organization of the human body from simplest to most complex.

5.     State the functions of eleven principal organ systems (pp 6-7); name a major organ of each principal system, and given a major organ, identify the system to which it belongs.

6.     List five characteristics all living organisms share, and apply these to specific examples.

7.     Explain the importance of homeostasis in any living organism.

8.     List the three components of all homeostatic control mechanisms, and describe their interaction.

9.     Name the two kinds of feedback, describe the characteristics of each, and explain why most homeostatic systems use negative feedback.

10.     Describe an example of negative feedback in a biological system, and explain why it exemplifies negative feedback.

11.     State two kinds of physiological responses to cooling below normal temperature and two responses to heating above normal temperature of a human body.

12.     State two reasons the blood glucose concentration must be maintained within narrow limits, and state the normal upper and lower limits of human blood glucose concentration.

13.     State the roles of the liver and pancreas and hormones, insulin and glucagon, in glucose homeostasis.

14.     Describe two examples of homeostatic systems in humans other than body temperature and blood glucose regulation.

15.     Describe an example of positive feedback in a biological system, and explain why it exemplifies positive feedback.

16.     Describe in detail the anatomical position.

17.     List and define the three common anatomical planes/sections.

18.     Name and locate (=describe the location of) the principal body cavities; name the two divisions of the dorsal body cavity; and name the two main divisions of the ventral body cavity, and the subdivisions of each division. 

19.     Name a major organ in each of the principal body cavities, or given a major organ, identify the body cavity in which it lies.

20.     Define and locate the principal regions and surfaces (listed in #23 below and Figure 1.7) of the  human body.

21.     Define and use properly the principal directional terms used in human anatomy (Table 1.1).

22.     List the four quadrants of the abdominopelvic cavity, and name one major organ that lies (mostly) in each.

23.     Define/locate (=describe the location of) the following terms/structures (reg. = region, sys. = system):
 

ref: Marieb and Hoehn (2007), Chapter 2.

1. Explain the differences between matter and energy, and between kinetic, potential, and chemical energy.

2. Diagram the electron configurations of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur.

3. Explain the differences among ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds.

4. Explain why carbon is the most important element in biological chemistry.

5. Diagram and identify the molecular configurations of methane, water, ethane, propane, ethyl alcohol, acetic acid, a generalized amino acid, glycerol, a fatty acid, and a 6-carbon simple sugar.

6. Diagram and identify the methyl, hydroxyl, carboxyl, and amino functional groups.

 7. Name an organic molecule or set of organic molecules (e.g., alcohols, monosaccharides) in which each of the above functional groups can be found.

 8. Name the monomers that combine to make polysaccharides, fats, and proteins.

 9. Name the macromolecules composed of simple sugars, glycerol and fatty acids, and amino acids.

10. Given a diagram of a molecule, identify it as a carbohydrate, fat, or polypeptide (protein).

11. Diagram a disaccharide, a fat, and a dipeptide.

12. Given a diagram of two molecules, diagram the product(s) of a dehydration synthesis to unite them.

13. Given a diagram of a small polymer, diagram product(s) of the hydrolysis of the molecule.

14. Name two kinds of polysaccharides involved in human physiology.

15. Describe the relationship of protein structure to function.

16. Explain why enzymes must catalyze the chemical reactions in living cells.

17. List two functional properties of enzymes.

18. Describe the process by which an enzyme catalyzes a reaction according to the lock-and-key model; use the terms "active site" and "substrate."

19. Name the two kinds of nucleic acids.

20. List the three parts of a nucleotide.

21. Describe the importance of ATP (adenosine triphosphate) in living systems.

22. Define or explain the meaning of the following terms:
 
 

ref: Marieb and Hoehn (2007), Chapter 3.

1. Explain why a cell is considered the basic living unit of organisms.

2. List the three principal parts of a cell.

3. Describe or diagram the structure of the cell membrane according to the fluid mosaic model.

4. Name two classes of membrane proteins, and list three functions of membrane proteins.

5. Name two factors related to the selective permeability of cell membranes.

6. List three passive processes of molecular movement across cell membranes.

7. Explain how random movement of molecules can result in net movement from regions of higher concentration to regions of lower concentration.

8. List three defining characteristics of osmosis.

9. Given two solutions separated by a selectively permeable membrane, explain what will happen as a result of osmosis.

10. Explain the differences among diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion, and filtration.

11. List three active processes of movement across cell membranes.

12. List two defining characteristics of active transport.

13. List three kinds of vesicular transport.

14. List and describe the functions of seven kinds of organelles.

15. Diagram the cell cycle, label its phases, and describe the events associated with each phase.

16. Name the type of cellular reproduction associated with somatic cell division.

17. List the phases of mitosis in order, and describe what occurs during each phase.

18. Explain why cells produced by mitosis must be exact copies of the mother cell.

19. Draw a chromosome as it would appear during any phase of mitosis and label the centromere and strands.

20. Define or explain the meaning of the following terms:
 

ref:  Marieb and Hoehn (2007), Chapter 4.

1. List and state the characteristics and differences among the four principal types of animal tissues.

2. State four general characteristics of epithelial tissues.

3. List four functions of epithelial tissue.

4. List and describe the three main shapes of epithelial cells.

5. Describe the ways epithelial cells may be arranged in a tissue.

6. List and describe five major types of covering epithelium.

7. For each of the major types of covering epithelium, name a location where that type is found.

8. Describe the structure of a generalized exocrine gland.

9. List two functional types of exocrine glands.

10. State two characteristics common to all connective tissues.

11. List three kinds of fibers found in connective tissues.

12. List and describe seven types of connective tissue and describe their structures and functions.

13. List five kinds of connective tissue cells.

14. Describe the structural and functional differences between loose and dense connective tissue.

15. Describe the function and appearance of adipose tissue under the microscope.

16. Describe the structural and functional differences between the two kinds of dense connective tissue.

17. Describe the structures of cartilage and bone (osseous) tissues, and state the differences between them.

18. State two characteristics of blood tissue.

19. For each major connective tissue type, specify a location where that tissue is found.

20. List three kinds of covering and lining membranes (pp. 141-143).

21. State the function of nervous tissue.

22. State three functions of muscle tissue, list the three types of muscle tissue, and state where each type is found.

23. List the three steps of tissue repair (p. 143-144) and describe the importance of regeneration and fibrosis in tissue repair.

24. Define/locate the following terms/structures (CT = connective tissue):
 

ref: Marieb and Hoehn (2007), Chapter 5.

1. List and describe four functions of the skin.

2. List, from superficial to deep, the three layers of the skin.

3. List from deepest to most superficial four strata of the epidermis, and describe the general structure of the epidermis.

4. Describe the life history of a keratinocyte from its origin to its loss from the body.

5. Describe the reasons for variation in skin color among individuals and between areas of skin (freckles).

6. State the location of melanocytes in the skin and state the function of melanin.

7. Describe the composition and functions of the dermis and subcutaneous layer (hypodermis).

8. List four kinds of integumentary glands and describe the products, functions, and distributions of each.

9. Describe the structure of a hair and hair follicle, and explain how a hair grows.

10. Given a diagram or model of the skin, locate and identify its parts.

11. List three parts of a finger- or toenail.

12. Describe the role of the integumentary system in body temperature regulation.

13. List the three kinds of skin cancer in order of increasing risk/danger.

14. Define/locate the following terms/structures:
 

ref: Marieb and Hoehn (2007), Chapter 6.

1. List five functions of the skeletal system, and describe how the skeleton accomplishes each of its functions.

2. List three types of skeletal cartilages, and name two places each type is found.

3. List three classes of bones based on shape.

4. List four parts of a long bone.

5. Describe the structure of an osteon, and draw an osteon in cross section and label the osteocytes, central (Haversian) canal, concentric lamellae, and canaliculi.

 6. List and distinguish between the functions of three kinds of bone cells.

 7. Describe the structure of spongy bone, and contrast this structure to that of compact bone.

 8. Describe how living osteocytes receive oxygen and nutrients and dispose of metabolic waste products.

9. List four bone markings that are muscle or ligament attachments, three that are parts of joints, and four that are depressions or openings (see Table 6.1).

10. Name, distinguish between, and describe the two modes of ossification, and state the difference in histology between bones formed by the two modes of ossification.

11. List four examples of membranous (or dermal) bones, and four examples of endochondral bones.

12. Describe the processes of growth and remodeling in a long bone.

13. Explain the importance of bone tissue in calcium ion homeostasis, and how bone tissue functions in this process. 

14.  Name two hormones that regulate blood Ca²⁺ ion concentration and bone tissue density, and state the role of each hormone. 

15. Describe the effects of exercise and/or inactivity on bone tissue.

16. Describe the process and list the four stages of healing of a fracture.

17. Define or explain the meaning of the following terms:
 

ref: Marieb and Hoehn (2007), Chapter 7, Part 1.

1.     Given the name of a human bone, identify it as a member of the axial or appendicular skeleton (see p. 176).

2.     List and identify five different cranial bones and their parts listed in #24.  (Paired bones, such as left and right parietal bones, are NOT considered “different.”)

3.     List and identify six different facial bones and their parts listed in #24.

4.     Name the bones that form, support, or underlie specific parts of the face.

5.     Name the bones that hold the upper and lower teeth.

6.     Name the bones that form the hard palate.

7.     Name four bones that form parts of each orbit.

8.     Name two bones that form parts of the lateral wall of the nasal cavity, and two bones that form parts of the nasal septum.

9.     Name and identify the anterior and posterior fontanels of a fetal/infant skull.

10.    Describe the structure and function of the hyoid bone.

11.    List the five regions of the vertebral column, state the number of vertebrae in each region, and state how the vertebrae of each region may be distinguished.

12.    Given an isolated vertebra, identify the region from which it comes.

13.    List in order and identify the four normal curves of the vertebral column.

14.    Identify and list four of the following parts of a vertebra: body, demifacet, facet for tubercle of rib, inferior articular process, spinous process, superior articular process, transverse process, vertebral foramen.

15.    Name in order and identify the first two cervical vertebrae.

16.    Identify and list four of the following parts of the atlas and/or axis: anterior arch, body, inferior articular process, dens (odontoid process), posterior arch, superior articular process, transverse foramen, transverse process, vertebral foramen.

17.    Name two kinds of intervertebral joints.

18.    List in order and identify the three parts of the sternum.

19.    Name the structures that connect the ribs to the sternum.

20.    List and identify four parts of a rib.

21.    List, identify, and distinguish the three groups of ribs.

22.    State the difference in the ribs between the sexes.

23.    For any bone listed below, name the bones or groups of bones with which it articulates.

24.    Define/locate the following terms/structures:
 

ref: Marieb and Hoehn (2007), Chapter 7, Part 2.

1. Name and identify the bones of the pectoral girdle.

2. List and identify the following parts of the scapula: acromion (process), axillary border, coracoid process, glenoid cavity, infraspinous fossa, spine, subscapular fossa, superior border, supraspinous fossa, vertebral border.

3. List and identify the long bones of an upper limb.

4. List and identify the following parts of the humerus, radius, and ulna:  capitulum, coronoid fossa, coronoid process, deltoid tuberosity, greater and lesser tubercles, head, lateral and medial epicondyles, olecranon fossa, olecranon process, radial tuberosity, trochlea, trochlear notch.

5. Identify (as a group) and state the number of carpal bones.

6. Identify and number (I-V) in situ the metacarpal bones and phalanges.

7. Name and identify the bones of the pelvic girdle.

8. List and identify the three bones that fuse to form each coxal bone.

9. List and identify the following parts of a coxal bone:  acetabulum, anterior inferior and superior iliac spines, iliac crest, iliac fossa, inferior and superior rami of pubis, ischial spine, ischial tuberosity, obturator foramen, pelvic brim, pubic arch, pubic symphysis.

10. List and identify the long bones of a lower limb.

11. List and identify the following parts of the femur, tibia, and fibula:  greater trochanter, head, intercondylar notch, lateral and medial condyles, lateral and medial epicondyles, lateral malleolus, lesser trochanter, linea aspera, medial malleolus, neck, tibial tuberosity.

12. Name and identify the talus and calcaneus individually, and identify the other tarsals as a group.

13. Identify and number (I-V) in situ the metatarsal bones and phalanges.

14. Given a complete pelvic girdle, identify its sex.

15. For any bone listed below, name the bones or groups of bones with which it articulates.

16. Define/Locate the following terms/structures:
 

ref: Marieb and Hoehn (2007), Chapter 8.

1.    List the three structural classes of joints.

2.    List the three functional classes of joints.

3.    Cite one specific example each of a synarthrosis, symphysis, and a diarthrosis.

4.    Given an example of an articulation, name its structural and/or functional class.

5.    Describe the general structure of a diarthrosis/synovial joint.

6.    List and describe two factors controlling the stability and the type and extent of motion at any joint.

7.    Describe the following types of movement at any of the major joints:  abduction, adduction, circumduction, extension, flexion, pronation, rotation, supination.

8.    Given an example of a movement, identify it as one of the types above.

9.    List and identify four types of diarthroses/synovial joints.

10.   List and identify the following parts of the tibiofemoral (knee) joint:  anterior cruciate ligament, fibular collateral ligament, lateral meniscus, medial meniscus, patella, patellar ligament, posterior cruciate ligament, tibial collateral ligament.

11.    List and distinguish among four kinds of inflammation of joints (pp. 273-274). 

12.    Define/Locate the following terms/structures:
 

ref: Marieb and Hoehn (2007), Chapter 9.

1.    List the three types of muscle tissue, describe their differences and distinguish among the three types, and describe their distributions in a human body.

2.    State three functions of muscle tissue.

3.    List three general characteristics or properties of muscle tissue.

4.    Describe the gross structure of a muscle including the belly, tendons, arrangement of muscle fibers, and the associated connective tissue (pp. 281-284). 

5.    List the three layers of connective tissue associated with a skeletal muscle.

6.    Describe and distinguish between the structures and functions of tendons, aponeuroses, and ligaments.

7.    Diagram and describe the structure of a sarcomere, and use your diagram to explain contraction of a muscle fiber according to the sliding filament mechanism (model). 

8.    List the protein components of thin and thick filaments. 

9.    Diagram and describe the structure and function of a neuromuscular junction.

10.    Describe the spread of depolarization from a neuromuscular junction and the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

11.    Describe the roles of calcium ions and ATP in muscle fiber contraction.

12.    List in order the three parts of a twitch.

13.    List three events that occur during the latent period of a twitch.

14.    List three reasons the force of muscular contraction varies depending on the task being done (pp. 297-299), and state two reasons normal

muscular movements are smooth rather than jerky.

15.    List the four sources of ATP for muscular activity in the order they are used (or used up).

16.    Describe the effect of length of a muscle fiber on the tension (force) it produces (p. 305).

17.    State the roles of smooth and skeletal muscle in body temperature homeostasis.

18.    Define or explain the meaning of the following terms:
 

ref: Marieb and Hoehn (2007), Chapter 10.

1. Describe the gross structure of a typical skeletal muscle (duplicates Muscle Tissue #4).

2. Explain why muscles are normally arranged in antagonistic pairs.

3. Describe the roles of fixators and synergists in the control of body movements.

4. Diagram and identify the common arrangements of fascicles in muscles (Figure 10.1).

5. Diagram and give examples in a human of the three classes of levers by naming the fulcrum, resistance, and muscle producing force (effort); Given an example of a lever, identify the class.

6. Explain why most of a human body’s levers are third class levers.

7. List six muscles of the face and jaw and state their functions/actions.

8. List two muscles that move the lips.

9. Name a muscle that closes an eye.

10. List three pairs of muscles that move the mandible.

11. Name the pair of muscles that flex the head.

12. Name a pair of muscles that extend the head.

13. Name two pairs of muscles that rotate the head.

14. List two groups or series of muscles that erect (extend) the vertebral column.

15. Name one muscle that flexes the torso.

16. List three muscles or sets of muscles used in breathing (see also pp. 847-849 and Figure 22.13) and state the action of each.

17. List four muscles of the abdominal wall and state their functions.

18. List four muscles that stabilize the scapula.

19. List the four muscles of the rotator cuff.

20. Name a muscle that flexes the arm.

21. Name two muscles that extend or hyperextend the arm.

22. List three muscles that adduct the arm.

23. List two muscles that abduct the arm.

24. List three muscles that flex and one that extends the forearm.

25. Name two muscles that pronate and one that supinates the hand.

26. List the four muscles of the quadriceps femoris group.

27. List the three muscles of the hamstring group.

28. List two muscles that flex the thigh.

29. Name two muscles that extend the thigh.

30. Name two muscles that abduct the thigh.

31. Name two muscles that adduct the thigh.

32. List three muscles that flex the leg.

33. List four muscles that extend the leg.

34. Name a muscle that flexes (dorsiflexes) the foot.

35. List three muscles that extend (plantar flex) the foot.

36. Define/locate or explain the meaning of the following terms:
 

37. Identify and specify the origin, insertion, and principal actions of the following muscles; given any muscle below, name an antagonist and/or synergist to it.
 

ref: Marieb and Hoehn (2007), Chapter 11.

1. List three basic functions of the nervous system.

2. Name the two principal divisions of the nervous system and the two principal organs of the central nervous system (CNS).

3. Name the two principal portions of the peripheral nervous system (PNS) and state the functions of each.

4. Name the two divisions of the autonomic nervous system.

5. List three kinds of supporting or glial cells, and state their locations and functions in the nervous system.

6. List and state the functions of the three parts of a neuron.

7. State the difference between gray and white matter.

8. List three structural and three functional types of neurons, and specify their locations.

9. Draw a bipolar, multipolar, or unipolar neuron and label the axon, cell body, and dendrite; indicate with an arrow the direction of impulse transmission in the neuron.

10. Describe how a resting potential is developed and maintained, and state the range and typical value of a resting membrane potential.

11. Name two kinds of gated ion channels.

12. Graph and list the three main parts of an action potential (see Fig. 11.12).

13. Describe the mechanism(s) involved in production of an action potential and in repolarization.

14. Given that all action potentials are alike, describe how we perceive stimulus intensity.

15. Name and distinguish between two kinds of refractory periods.

16. State two factors that affect the rate of impulse conduction at normal body temperature.

17. Describe the propagation of impulses along a neuron by continuous and saltatory conduction.

18. Diagram and describe the structure, function, and importance of a chemical synapse (including the fate of used neurotransmitter molecules).

19. Describe the importance of excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials in spatial and temporal summation and generation of action potentials in postsynaptic neurons.

20. List four classes of neurotransmitters, and cite one example in each class.

21. List three kinds of neuronal circuits.

22. Define or explain the meaning of the following terms:
 

ref: Marieb and Hoehn (2007), Chapter 12.

1. Describe the development of the telencephalon, diencephalon, midbrain, and brain stem from the neural tube.

2. List and identify the four principal parts of the adult brain (see Figures 12.2d, 12.3d).

3. Name two parts of the diencephalon.

4. List the four ventricles of the brain.

5. State a function for each of the basal nuclei, cerebrum, midbrain, pons, reticular formation, superior and inferior colliculi, limbic system, and thalamus.

6. Given a brain function, identify the part of the brain with that function.

7. List and identify four lobes of the cerebrum.

8. List the three kinds of functional areas of the cerebral cortex.

9. List and identify the locations of two primary motor areas, three primary sensory areas, and three association areas of the cerebral cortex.

10. List and identify three kinds of fibers (based on destinations of impulses) in the cerebral white matter; state the function and location of the corpus callosum.

11. List and identify four functions of the hypothalamus.

12. List the three parts of the brain stem.

13. Name two homeostatic centers in the medulla oblongata and pons, and name two other functions of the medulla.

14. State the function of the cerebellum.

15. List two anatomical parts and state the function of the limbic system.

16. List two anatomical parts and state the function of the reticular formation, and describe the role of the reticular activating system in wakefulness and sleep.

17. Name the two major types of sleep, and name the type during which dreaming occurs (p. 458).

18. Name two types of memory based on time, and describe how they and memory consolidation apply to learning of Human Anatomy and Physiology.

19. List three factors that affect transfer of information from short-term memory to long-term memory.

20. Name the two categories of memory based on different kinds of mental tasks.

21. Name two parts of the brain involved in fact memory and two parts involved in skills memory.

22. List three kinds of protection for the central nervous system (p. 463-467) (not 3 meninges, see #23 below).

23. List the three meninges from superficial to deep.

24. State three functions of cerebrospinal fluid.

25. Describe the structure and function of the choroid plexuses.

26. State the importance of the blood-brain barrier.

27. Describe the gross structure of the spinal cord including its length and thickness.

28. Draw a cross section of the spinal cord and a pair of spinal nerves; label the white matter, anterior gray horn, posterior gray horn, dorsal root, dorsal root ganglion, and ventral root.

29. Specify the cellular contents and functions of the anterior gray horn, posterior gray horn, anterior (ventral) root, posterior (dorsal) root, and white matter of the spinal cord.

30. Describe the functional impairment that could be expected following damage to a specified part of the brain or spinal cord.

31. Define/locate the following terms/structures:
 

ref: Marieb and Hoehn (2007), Chapter 13.

1.    List three parts of the peripheral nervous system.

2.    List in order three wrappings of connective tissue associated with a nerve.

3. Describe the process of regeneration of nerve fibers in an injured nerve, and state the conditions under which regeneration will or will not occur.

4. List in order (by name and number) the twelve pairs of cranial nerves, and specify the function(s) of each pair.

5. List in order the five regional groups of spinal nerves; specify the number of pairs of spinal nerves in each regional group and the total number of pairs.

6. Name the two roots of a spinal nerve and specify the functional type of neurons in each root.

7. List the four rami of a spinal nerve, and state the sensory/motor and somatic/autonomic function of each ramus.  

8. List from superior to inferior the four major plexuses.

9. Name one major nerve that arises from the cervical plexus and specify the region(s) it innervates.

10. List five major nerves that arise from the brachial plexus and specify the regions they innervate.

11. Name two major nerves that arise from the lumbar plexus and specify the regions they innervate.

12. Name two major nerves that arise from the sacral plexus and specify the regions they innervate.

13. Given a major nerve, identify the plexus from which it arises and the region it innervates.

14. Name a major nerve innervating the diaphragm, muscles of the arm, muscles of the forearm, muscles of the thigh, muscles of the leg, and the external genitalia.

15. List the five components of a reflex arc.

16. Draw a polysynaptic spinal reflex arc, and label the sensory, motor, and association (inter-) neurons; indicate clearly where these neurons lie in and adjacent to the spinal cord.

17. Define/locate the following terms/structures  (n. = specific nerve or pair):
 

ref: Marieb and Hoehn (2007), Chapter 14.

1. Name the two functional and two anatomical divisions of the autonomic nervous system (ANS).

2. State why the sympathetic division is also called the thoracolumbar division, and the parasympathetic division is also called the craniosacral division.

3. State three differences between the somatic and autonomic nervous systems.

4. Name two kinds of efferent (motor) neurons in both the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, and describe their arrangement in an autonomic pathway.

5. Name the parasympathetic ganglia and describe their locations.

6. Describe the route of a parasympathetic impulse from the CNS through a parasympathetic ganglion to an effector.

7. Name two kinds of sympathetic ganglia and describe their locations.

8. Describe the route of a sympathetic impulse from the spinal cord through a sympathetic ganglion to an effector.

9. Describe the anatomical and functional relationship of the adrenal medulla to the sympathetic division (see p. 522, col. 1).

10. Explain why visceral pain is usually experienced as referred pain.

11. Name the three neurotransmitters in the ANS, and associate them with their four receptor types.

12. Describe the distribution of cholinergic and adrenergic neurons in the somatic and autonomic nervous systems; given an efferent neuron, classify it according to the type of neurotransmitter it produces.

13. Name one organ (or part) each that receives only sympathetic innervation, only parasympathetic innervation, and dual innervation.

14. Explain why sympathetic effects are usually longer lasting than parasympathetic effects.

15. Describe the nature of parasympathetic and sympathetic responses of specific organs.

16. Describe the homeostatic relationship of the hypothalamus to the ANS, and apply this relationship to specific examples.

17. Define/Locate the following terms/structures:
 

ref: Marieb and Hoehn (2007), Chapters 13  & 15.

1. State the difference between sensation and perception (p. 493).

2. List the three levels of neural integration in the somatosensory system (p. 493).

3. List in order the four components of sensation.

4. Name four types of sensory receptors classified according to stimulus type, three types classified according to location, and two types classified according to complexity.

5. List three kinds of cutaneous sensations, and name one specialized receptor associated with each.

6. Describe the function of proprioceptors, and list the three types of proprioceptive organs in muscles, tendons, and joints.

7. Name the two special chemical senses.

8. List three locations of taste buds, and describe the structure and function of a taste bud.

9. List the four primary taste sensations.

10. List three cranial nerves involved in gustatory pathways.

11. Describe the location, structure, and function of olfactory receptors.

12. List three sets of accessory structures that protect each eye.

13. List three parts of the lacrimal apparatus, and describe the route of a teardrop from the lacrimal gland to the nasal cavity.

14. List three components of tears.

15. List the six extrinsic eye muscles and specify the function of each (see Figure 16.6).

16. List the three tunics (layers) of the eye.

17. Name the two parts of the fibrous tunic and specify their functions.

18. Name three parts of the vascular tunic and specify their functions.

19. Describe the arrangement of smooth muscle fibers in the iris, their autonomic innervation, and the function of these fibers in control of pupil size.

20. List four kinds of retinal cells, including the two kinds of light receptive cells and specify their functions.

21. Name the part of the retina where images are focused, and describe why visual acuity is greatest in this part of the retina.

22. Describe the contributions of rod and cone cells to vision and the relative advantages of each.

23. Name the two parts of the eye that refract light, and state their functions in focusing light rays on the retina.

24. Describe the structure of the ciliary muscle and suspensory ligaments and their function in focusing an image (far or near vision) in the eye.

25. Name the photopigment in rod cells, the two parts of all photopigments, and the dietary source of one part.

26. List and specify the functions of the three regions of the ear.

27. List the auditory ossicles in the order they receive a vibration and specify the collective function of the auditory ossicles.

28. List the three divisions of the bony labyrinth, and describe the structure of these parts.

29. Name the two parts of the vestibule.

30. Explain the function of the organ of Corti in the sensation of sound.

31. Distinguish between static equilibrium and dynamic equilibrium, and name the organs that sense each of these.

32. Explain the responses of the saccule, utricle, and semicircular canals to movements of the head.

33. Define/locate the following terms/structures: